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</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#66ccff;"><a href="Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;">
Preceded by <a href="Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#aaddff;">
<a href="Postmodernity" title="Postmodernity">Postmodernity</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">
<ul><li><a href="Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
<li><a href="Hypermodernity" title="Hypermodernity">Hypermodernity</a></li>
<li><a href="Hyperreality" title="Hyperreality">Hyperreality</a></li>
<li><a href="Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li>
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Fields</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">
<ul><li><a href="Postmodernist_anthropology" title="Postmodernist anthropology">Anthropology</a></li>
<li><a href="Post-processual_archaeology" title="Post-processual archaeology">Archaeology</a></li>
<li><a href="Postmodern_architecture" title="Postmodern architecture">Architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="Postmodern_art" title="Postmodern art">Art</a></li>
<li><a href="Postmodernist_school_(criminology)" title="Postmodernist school (criminology)">Criminology</a></li>
<li><a href="Postmodern_dance" title="Postmodern dance">Dance</a></li>
<li><a href="Postmodern_feminism" title="Postmodern feminism">Feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="Postmodernist_film" title="Postmodernist film">Film</a>
<ul><li><a href="Postmodern_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodern film">Television</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Postmodern_literature" title="Postmodern literature">Literature</a> (<a href="Postmodern_picture_book" title="Postmodern picture book">Picture books</a>)</li>
<li><a href="Postmodern_music" title="Postmodern music">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="Postmodernism_(international_relations)" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernism (international relations)">International relations</a></li>
<li><a href="Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Philosophy</a>
<ul><li><a href="Post-anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="Post-Marxism" title="Post-Marxism">Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Postmodern_psychology" title="Postmodern psychology">Psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="Postmodernism_in_political_science" title="Postmodernism in political science">Political science</a></li>
<li><a href="Postmodern_theatre" title="Postmodern theatre">Theatre</a></li>
<li><a href="Postmodern_theology" title="Postmodern theology">Theology</a> and <a href="Postmodern_religion" title="Postmodern religion">Religion</a></li></ul></td>
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Reactions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">
<ul><li><a href="Criticism_of_postmodernism" title="Criticism of postmodernism">Criticism</a></li>
<li><a href="Metamodernism" title="Metamodernism">Metamodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="Post-postmodernism" title="Post-postmodernism">Post-postmodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="Remodernism" title="Remodernism">Remodernism</a></li></ul></td>
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<table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:19.5em"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#66ccff;"><a href="Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;;padding:0;font-size:0.7em;line-height:0.7em;">
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General concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;">
<ul><li><a href="Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">Sign</a>
<ul><li><a href="Sign_relation" title="Sign relation">relation</a></li>
<li><a href="Sign_relational_complex" title="Sign relational complex">relational complex</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Code_(semiotics)" title="Code (semiotics)">Code</a></li>
<li><a href="Confabulation" title="Confabulation">Confabulation</a></li>
<li><a href="Connotation_(semiotics)" title="Connotation (semiotics)">Connotation</a> / <a href="Denotation_(semiotics)" title="Denotation (semiotics)">Denotation</a></li>
<li><a href="Encoding_(semiotics)" title="Encoding (semiotics)">Encoding</a> / <a href="Decoding_(semiotics)" title="Decoding (semiotics)">Decoding</a></li>
<li><a href="Content_word" title="Content word">Lexical</a></li>
<li><a href="Modality_(semiotics)" title="Modality (semiotics)">Modality</a></li>
<li><a href="Representation_(arts)" title="Representation (arts)">Representation</a></li>
<li><a href="Salience_(language)" title="Salience (language)">Salience</a></li>
<li><a href="Semiosis" title="Semiosis">Semiosis</a></li>
<li><a href="Semiosphere" title="Semiosphere">Semiosphere</a></li>
<li><a href="Semiotic_theory_of_Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Semiotic theory of Charles Sanders Peirce">Semiotic theory of Peirce</a></li>
<li><i><a href="Umwelt" title="Umwelt">Umwelt</a></i></li>
<li><a href="Value_(semiotics)" title="Value (semiotics)">Value</a></li></ul></td>
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Fields</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;">
<ul><li><a href="Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li>
<li><a href="Cognitive_semiotics" title="Cognitive semiotics">Cognitive semiotics</a></li>
<li><a href="Computational_semiotics" title="Computational semiotics">Computational semiotics</a></li>
<li><a href="Semiotic_literary_criticism" title="Semiotic literary criticism">Literary semiotics</a></li>
<li><a href="Semiotics_of_culture" title="Semiotics of culture">Semiotics of culture</a></li>
<li><a href="Social_semiotics" title="Social semiotics">Social semiotics</a></li></ul></td>
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Methods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;">
<ul><li><a href="Commutation_test" title="Commutation test">Commutation test</a></li>
<li><a href="Paradigmatic_analysis" title="Paradigmatic analysis">Paradigmatic analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Syntagmatic_analysis" title="Syntagmatic analysis">Syntagmatic analysis</a></li></ul></td>
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Semioticians</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;">
<ul><li><a href="Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Roland Barthes</a></li>
<li><a href="Marcel_Danesi" title="Marcel Danesi">Marcel Danesi</a></li>
<li><a href="John_Deely" title="John Deely">John Deely</a></li>
<li><a href="Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Umberto Eco</a></li>
<li><a href="Paolo_Fabbri_(semiotician)" title="Paolo Fabbri (semiotician)">Paolo Fabbri</a></li>
<li><a href="Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></li>
<li><a href="Algirdas_Julien_Greimas" title="Algirdas Julien Greimas">Algirdas Julien Greimas</a></li>
<li><a href="F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" title="Félix Guattari">Félix Guattari</a></li>
<li><a href="Stuart_Hall_(cultural_theorist)" title="Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)">Stuart Hall</a></li>
<li><a href="Louis_Hjelmslev" title="Louis Hjelmslev">Louis Hjelmslev</a></li>
<li><a href="Vyacheslav_Ivanov_(philologist)" title="Vyacheslav Ivanov (philologist)">Vyacheslav Ivanov</a></li>
<li><a href="Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Roman Jakobson</a></li>
<li><a href="Roberta_Kevelson" title="Roberta Kevelson">Roberta Kevelson</a></li>
<li><a href="Kalevi_Kull" title="Kalevi Kull">Kalevi Kull</a></li>
<li><a href="Juri_Lotman" title="Juri Lotman">Juri Lotman</a></li>
<li><a href="Charles_W._Morris" title="Charles W. Morris">Charles W. Morris</a></li>
<li><a href="Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles S. Peirce</a></li>
<li><a href="Susan_Petrilli" title="Susan Petrilli">Susan Petrilli</a></li>
<li><a href="John_of_St._Thomas" title="John of St. Thomas">John Poinsot</a></li>
<li><a href="Augusto_Ponzio" title="Augusto Ponzio">Augusto Ponzio</a></li>
<li><a href="Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a></li>
<li><a href="Thomas_Sebeok" title="Thomas Sebeok">Thomas Sebeok</a></li>
<li><a href="Michael_Silverstein" title="Michael Silverstein">Michael Silverstein</a></li>
<li><a href="Eero_Tarasti" title="Eero Tarasti">Eero Tarasti</a></li>
<li><a href="Vladimir_Toporov" title="Vladimir Toporov">Vladimir Toporov</a></li>
<li><a href="Jakob_Johann_von_Uexk%C3%BCll" title="Jakob Johann von Uexküll">Jakob von Uexküll</a></li>
<li><a href="Victoria%2C_Lady_Welby" title="Victoria, Lady Welby">Victoria, Lady Welby</a></li></ul></td>
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Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;">
<ul><li><a href="Copenhagen%E2%80%93Tartu_school" title="Copenhagen–Tartu school">Copenhagen–Tartu school</a></li>
<li><a href="Tartu%E2%80%93Moscow_Semiotic_School" title="Tartu–Moscow Semiotic School">Tartu–Moscow Semiotic School</a></li>
<li><a href="Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
<li><a href="Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a></li></ul></td>
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<p><b>Post-structuralism</b> is a philosophical movement that questions the objectivity or stability of the various interpretive structures that are posited by <a href="Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a> and considers them to be constituted by broader systems of <a href="Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although different post-structuralists present different critiques of structuralism, common themes include the rejection of the self-sufficiency of structuralism, as well as an interrogation of the <a href="Binary_opposition" title="Binary opposition">binary oppositions</a> that constitute its structures. Accordingly, post-structuralism discards the idea of interpreting media (or the world) within pre-established, socially constructed structures.<sup id="cite_ref-Bensmaia05_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bensmaia05-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Poster88_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poster88-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Merquior1987_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merquior1987-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><i>Structuralism</i> proposes that human <a href="Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> can be understood by means of a <a href="Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">structure that is modeled on language</a>. As a result, there is concrete <a href="Reality" title="Reality">reality</a> on the one hand, abstract <a href="Idea" title="Idea">ideas</a> about reality on the other hand, and a "third order" that mediates between the two.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>A post-structuralist response, then, might suggest that in order to build meaning out of such an interpretation, one must (falsely) assume that the definitions of these signs are both valid and fixed, and that the author employing structuralist theory is somehow above and apart from these structures they are describing so as to be able to wholly appreciate them. The rigidity and tendency to categorize intimations of universal truths found in structuralist thinking is a common target of post-structuralist thought, while also building upon structuralist conceptions of reality mediated by the interrelationship between signs.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Writers whose works are often characterised as post-structuralist include <a href="Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Roland Barthes</a>, <a href="Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a>, <a href="Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>, <a href="Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a>, and <a href="Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a>, although many theorists who have been called "post-structuralist" have rejected the label.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>
<p>Post-structuralism emerged in <a href="France" title="France">France</a> during the 1960s as a movement critiquing <a href="Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a>. According to <a href="Jos%C3%A9_Guilherme_Merquior" title="José Guilherme Merquior">J. G. Merquior</a>, a <a href="Love%E2%80%93hate_relationship" title="Love–hate relationship">love–hate relationship</a> with structuralism developed among many leading French thinkers in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-Merquior1987_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merquior1987-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The period was marked by the rebellion of students and workers against the state in <a href="May_1968_events_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="May 1968 events in France">May 1968</a>.
</p><p>In a 1966 lecture titled "<a href="Structure%2C_Sign%2C_and_Play_in_the_Discourse_of_the_Human_Sciences" title="Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences">Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences</a>", <a href="Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a> presented a thesis on an apparent rupture in intellectual life. Derrida interpreted this event as a "decentering" of the former intellectual cosmos. Instead of progress or divergence from an identified centre, Derrida described this "event" as a kind of "play."
</p><p>A year later, in 1967, <a href="Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Roland Barthes</a> published "<a href="The_Death_of_the_Author" title="The Death of the Author">The Death of the Author</a>", in which he announced a metaphorical event: the "death" of the author as an authentic source of meaning for a given text. Barthes argued that any literary text has multiple meanings and that the author was not the prime source of the work's semantic content. The "Death of the Author," Barthes maintained, was the "Birth of the Reader," as the source of the proliferation of meanings of the text.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Barthes_and_the_need_for_metalanguage">Barthes and the need for metalanguage</h3></div>
<p>In <i><a href="Elements_of_Semiology" title="Elements of Semiology">Elements of Semiology</a></i> (1967), Barthes advances the concept of the <i><a href="Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">metalanguage</a></i>, a systematized way of talking about concepts like meaning and grammar beyond the constraints of a traditional (first-order) language; in a metalanguage, symbols replace words and phrases. Insofar as one metalanguage is required for one explanation of the first-order language, another may be required, so metalanguages may actually replace first-order languages. Barthes exposes how this structuralist system is regressive; orders of language rely upon a metalanguage by which it is explained, and therefore <a href="Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">deconstruction</a> itself is in danger of becoming a metalanguage, thus exposing all languages and discourse to scrutiny. Barthes' other works contributed deconstructive theories about texts.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Derrida's_lecture_at_Johns_Hopkins">Derrida's lecture at Johns Hopkins</h3></div>
<p>The occasional designation of post-structuralism as a movement can be tied to the fact that mounting criticism of Structuralism became evident at approximately the same time that Structuralism became a topic of interest in universities in the United States. This interest led to a colloquium at <a href="Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a> in 1966 titled "The Languages of Criticism and the Sciences of Man", to which such French philosophers as <a href="Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a>, <a href="Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Roland Barthes</a>, and <a href="Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a> were invited to speak.
</p><p>Derrida's lecture at that conference, "<a href="Structure%2C_Sign%2C_and_Play_in_the_Discourse_of_the_Human_Sciences" title="Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences">Structure, Sign, and Play in the Human Sciences</a>", was one of the earliest to propose some theoretical limitations to Structuralism, and to attempt to theorize on terms that were clearly no longer structuralist.
</p><p>The element of "play" in the title of Derrida's essay is often erroneously interpreted in a linguistic sense, based on a general tendency towards puns and humour, while <a href="Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">social constructionism</a> as developed in the later work of <a href="Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a> is said to create play in the sense of strategic agency by laying bare the levers of historical change.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-structuralism_and_structuralism">Post-structuralism and structuralism</h2></div>
<p><a href="Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a>, as an intellectual movement in France in the 1950s and 1960s, studied underlying structures in <a href="Cultural_artifact" title="Cultural artifact">cultural products</a> (such as <a href="Text_(literary_theory)" title="Text (literary theory)">texts</a>) and used analytical concepts from <a href="Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, <a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, and other fields to <a href="Interpretation_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Interpretation (disambiguation)">interpret</a> those structures. Structuralism posits the concept of <a href="Binary_opposition" title="Binary opposition">binary opposition</a>, in which frequently-used pairs of opposite-but-related words (concepts) are often arranged in a hierarchy; for example: <a href="Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>/<a href="Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic</a>, male/female, speech/writing, rational/emotional, signified/signifier, symbolic/imaginary, and east/west.
</p><p>Post-structuralism rejects the structuralist notion that the dominant word in a pair is dependent on its <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/subservient" class="extiw external" title="wikt:subservient">subservient</a> counterpart, and instead argues that founding knowledge on either pure experience (<a href="Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>) or on <a href="System" title="System">systematic</a> structures (structuralism) is impossible,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because history and culture actually condition the study of underlying structures, and these are subject to biases and misinterpretations. <a href="Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a> and others saw this impossibility not as a failure or loss, but rather as a cause for "celebration and liberation."<sup id="cite_ref-Colebrook_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colebrook-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A post-structuralist approach argues that to understand an object (a text, for example), one must study both the object itself and the <a href="System" title="System">systems</a> of knowledge that produced the object.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The uncertain boundaries between structuralism and post-structuralism become further blurred by the fact that scholars rarely label themselves as post-structuralists. Some scholars associated with structuralism, such as <a href="Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Roland Barthes</a> and <a href="Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>, also became noteworthy in post-structuralism.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Authors">Authors</h2></div>
<p>The following are often said to be post-structuralists, or to have had a post-structuralist period:
</p>
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<ul><li><a href="Kathy_Acker" title="Kathy Acker">Kathy Acker</a><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Giorgio Agamben</a><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Roland Barthes</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Wendy_Brown_(political_theorist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wendy Brown (political theorist)">Wendy Brown</a><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Judith Butler</a><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Rey_Chow" title="Rey Chow">Rey Chow</a><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Cixous" title="Hélène Cixous">Hélène Cixous</a><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Jodi_Dean" title="Jodi Dean">Jodi Dean</a><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Umberto Eco</a><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="John_Fiske_(media_studies)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Fiske (media studies)">John Fiske</a><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Nancy_Fraser" title="Nancy Fraser">Nancy Fraser</a><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" title="Félix Guattari">Félix Guattari</a><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Luce Irigaray</a><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Julia_Kristeva" title="Julia Kristeva">Julia Kristeva</a><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Teresa_de_Lauretis" title="Teresa de Lauretis">Teresa de Lauretis</a><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Sarah_Kofman" title="Sarah Kofman">Sarah Kofman</a><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Philippe_Lacoue-Labarthe" title="Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe">Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe</a><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Ernesto Laclau</a><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Jean-François Lyotard</a><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Achille_Mbembe" title="Achille Mbembe">Achille Mbembe</a><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Todd_May_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Todd May (philosopher)">Todd May</a><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Chantal Mouffe</a><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Jean-Luc_Nancy" title="Jean-Luc Nancy">Jean-Luc Nancy</a><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Avital_Ronell" title="Avital Ronell">Avital Ronell</a><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Bernard_Stiegler" title="Bernard Stiegler">Bernard Stiegler</a><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><a href="Gayatri_Chakravorty_Spivak" title="Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak">Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak</a><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2></div>
<p>Some observers from outside of the post-structuralist camp have questioned the rigour and legitimacy of the field. American philosopher <a href="John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a>
suggested in 1990: "The spread of 'poststructuralist' <a href="Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">literary theory</a> is perhaps the best-known example of a silly but non-catastrophic phenomenon."<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, physicist <a href="Alan_Sokal" title="Alan Sokal">Alan Sokal</a> in 1997 criticized "the <a href="Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernist</a>/poststructuralist gibberish that is now <a href="Hegemonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegemonic">hegemonic</a> in some sectors of the American academy."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>
Literature scholar <a href="Norman_Holland" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Holland">Norman Holland</a> in 1992 saw post-structuralism as flawed due to reliance on <a href="Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Saussure</a>'s linguistic model, which was seriously challenged by the 1950s and was soon abandoned by linguists:</p><blockquote><p>Saussure's views are not held, so far as I know, by modern linguists, only by literary critics and the occasional philosopher. [Strict adherence to Saussure] has elicited wrong <a href="Film_theory" title="Film theory">film</a> and literary theory on a grand scale. One can find dozens of books of literary theory bogged down in signifiers and signifieds, but only a handful that refers to <a href="Chomsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Chomsky">Chomsky</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div>
<div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;">
<ul><li><a href="Development_criticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Development criticism">Development criticism</a></li>
<li><a href="Narrative_therapy" title="Narrative therapy">Narrative therapy</a></li>
<li><a href="Post-postmodernism" title="Post-postmodernism">Post-postmodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="Post-structural_feminism" title="Post-structural feminism">Post-structural feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="Post-structuralist_subject" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-structuralist subject">Post-structuralist subject</a></li>
<li><a href="Poststructuralism_(international_relations)" title="Poststructuralism (international relations)">Poststructuralism (international relations)</a></li>
<li><a href="Reader-response_criticism" title="Reader-response criticism">Reader-response criticism</a></li>
<li><a href="Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li>
<li><a href="Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li>
<li><a href="Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li></ul></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>
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</style><cite id="CITEREFLewisDescombesHarari1982" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, Philip; Descombes, Vincent; Harari, Josue V. (1982). "The Post-Structuralist Condition". <i><a href="Diacritics_(journal)" title="Diacritics (journal)">Diacritics</a></i>. <b>12</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">2–</span>24. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F464788">10.2307/464788</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/464788">464788</a>.</cite></span>
</li>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>
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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hydra.humanities.uci.edu/derrida/sign-play.html"><i>Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences</i> - Jacques Derrida</a></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFSmith2010" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Richard G., ed. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DyCrBgAAQBAJ"><i>The Baudrillard Dictionary</i></a>. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780748639229</bdi>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1g09vw4">10.3366/j.ctt1g09vw4</a>.</cite></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050728125303/http://www.brocku.ca/english/courses/4F70/poststruct.html">"Some Post-Structural Assumptions" - John Lye</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110523082835/http://www2.fiu.edu/~mizrachs/pomo.html">Talking pomo: An analysis of the post-modern movement, by Steve Mizrach</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://foucault.info/">Information on Michel Foucault, including an archive of writings and lectures</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091206043349/http://poststructuralism.info/">poststructuralism.info</a> - A collaborative website that aims to allow users not only to describe post-structuralist ideas but to create new ideas and concepts based on post-structuralist foundations</li></ul>
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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Continental_philosophy101" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Continental_philosophy101" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li>
<li><a href="Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li>
<li><a href="Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Althusser</a></li>
<li><a href="Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li>
<li><a href="Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li>
<li><a href="Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Bachelard</a></li>
<li><a href="Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li>
<li><a href="Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Barthes</a></li>
<li><a href="Georges_Bataille" title="Georges Bataille">Bataille</a></li>
<li><a href="Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li>
<li><a href="Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li>
<li><a href="Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li>
<li><a href="Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li>
<li><a href="Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li>
<li><a href="Maurice_Blanchot" title="Maurice Blanchot">Blanchot</a></li>
<li><a href="Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a></li>
<li><a href="Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Buber</a></li>
<li><a href="Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li>
<li><a href="Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li>
<li><a href="Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer</a></li>
<li><a href="Cornelius_Castoriadis" title="Cornelius Castoriadis">Castoriadis</a></li>
<li><a href="Emil_Cioran" title="Emil Cioran">Cioran</a></li>
<li><a href="H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Cixous" title="Hélène Cixous">Cixous</a></li>
<li><a href="Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Croce</a></li>
<li><a href="Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li>
<li><a href="Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li>
<li><a href="Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li>
<li><a href="Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li>
<li><a href="Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Dilthey</a></li>
<li><a href="Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li>
<li><a href="Terry_Eagleton" title="Terry Eagleton">Eagleton</a></li>
<li><a href="Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li>
<li><a href="Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Fanon</a></li>
<li><a href="Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li>
<li><a href="Mark_Fisher" title="Mark Fisher">Fisher</a></li>
<li><a href="Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li>
<li><a href="Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li>
<li><a href="Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li>
<li><a href="F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" title="Félix Guattari">Guattari</a></li>
<li><a href="Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li>
<li><a href="J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li>
<li><a href="Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li>
<li><a href="Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li>
<li><a href="Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Husserl</a></li>
<li><a href="Roman_Ingarden" title="Roman Ingarden">Ingarden</a></li>
<li><a href="Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li>
<li><a href="Fredric_Jameson" title="Fredric Jameson">Jameson</a></li>
<li><a href="Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Jaspers</a></li>
<li><a href="S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li>
<li><a href="Alexandre_Koj%C3%A8ve" title="Alexandre Kojève">Kojève</a></li>
<li><a href="Alexandre_Koyr%C3%A9" title="Alexandre Koyré">Koyré</a></li>
<li><a href="Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li>
<li><a href="Julia_Kristeva" title="Julia Kristeva">Kristeva</a></li>
<li><a href="Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Lacan</a></li>
<li><a href="Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Latour</a></li>
<li><a href="Henri_Lefebvre" title="Henri Lefebvre">Lefebvre</a></li>
<li><a href="Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Lévi-Strauss</a></li>
<li><a href="Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Levinas</a></li>
<li><a href="Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li>
<li><a href="Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li>
<li><a href="Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Lyotard</a></li>
<li><a href="Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Marcel</a></li>
<li><a href="Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li>
<li><a href="Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li>
<li><a href="Quentin_Meillassoux" title="Quentin Meillassoux">Meillassoux</a></li>
<li><a href="Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a></li>
<li><a href="Jean-Luc_Nancy" title="Jean-Luc Nancy">Nancy</a></li>
<li><a href="Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li>
<li><a href="Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li>
<li><a href="Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega y Gasset</a></li>
<li><a href="Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Rancière</a></li>
<li><a href="Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li>
<li><a href="Edward_Said" title="Edward Said">Said</a></li>
<li><a href="Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li>
<li><a href="Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a></li>
<li><a href="Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li>
<li><a href="Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li>
<li><a href="Michel_Serres" title="Michel Serres">Serres</a></li>
<li><a href="Peter_Sloterdijk" title="Peter Sloterdijk">Sloterdijk</a></li>
<li><a href="Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li>
<li><a href="Edith_Stein" title="Edith Stein">Stein</a></li>
<li><a href="Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li>
<li><a href="Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li>
<li><a href="Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li>
<li><a href="Raymond_Williams" title="Raymond Williams">Williams</a></li>
<li><a href="Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Absurdism" title="Absurdism">Absurdism</a></li>
<li><a href="Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
<li><a href="Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li>
<li><a href="German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>
<ul><li><a href="Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western</a></li>
<li><a href="Freudo-Marxism" title="Freudo-Marxism">Freudo-</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li>
<li><a href="Non-philosophy" title="Non-philosophy">Non-philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="Non-representational_theory" title="Non-representational theory">Non-representational theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="Philosophical_pessimism" title="Philosophical pessimism">Philosophical pessimism</a></li>
<li><a href="Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">Psychoanalysis</a>
<ul><li><a href="Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalytic theory</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li>
<li><a href="Speculative_realism" title="Speculative realism">Speculative realism</a></li>
<li><a href="Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Alterity" title="Alterity">Alterity</a></li>
<li><a href="Always_already" title="Always already">Always already</a></li>
<li><a href="Angst" title="Angst">Angst</a></li>
<li><a href="Apollonian_and_Dionysian" title="Apollonian and Dionysian">Apollonian and Dionysian</a></li>
<li><a href="Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">Authenticity</a></li>
<li><a href="Being_in_itself" title="Being in itself">Being in itself</a></li>
<li><a href="Binary_oppositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary oppositions">Binary oppositions</a></li>
<li><a href="Boredom" title="Boredom">Boredom</a></li>
<li><a href="Class_struggle" title="Class struggle">Class struggle</a></li>
<li><a href="Critique" title="Critique">Critique</a>
<ul><li><a href="Immanent_critique" title="Immanent critique">Immanent</a></li>
<li><a href="Ideological_criticism" title="Ideological criticism">Ideological</a></li>
<li><a href="Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="Dasein" title="Dasein">Dasein</a></i></li>
<li><a href="Death_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of God">Death of God</a></li>
<li><a href="Death_drive" title="Death drive">Death drive</a></li>
<li><a href="Diff%C3%A9rance" title="Différance">Différance</a></li>
<li><a href="Difference_(philosophy)" title="Difference (philosophy)">Difference</a></li>
<li><a href="Existence_precedes_essence" title="Existence precedes essence">Existence precedes essence</a></li>
<li><a href="Existential_crisis" title="Existential crisis">Existential crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="Facticity" title="Facticity">Facticity</a></li>
<li><a href="Gaze" title="Gaze">Gaze</a></li>
<li><a href="Genealogy_(philosophy)" title="Genealogy (philosophy)">Genealogy</a></li>
<li><a href="Habitus_(sociology)" title="Habitus (sociology)">Habitus</a></li>
<li><a href="Hauntology" title="Hauntology">Hauntology</a></li>
<li><a href="Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">Historical materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li>
<li><a href="Interpellation_(philosophy)" title="Interpellation (philosophy)">Interpellation (philosophy)</a></li>
<li><a href="Intersubjectivity" title="Intersubjectivity">Intersubjectivity</a></li>
<li><a href="Leap_of_faith" title="Leap of faith">Leap of faith</a></li>
<li><a href="Master%E2%80%93slave_dialectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Master–slave dialectic">Master–slave dialectic</a></li>
<li><a href="Master%E2%80%93slave_morality" title="Master–slave morality">Master–slave morality</a></li>
<li><a href="Oedipus_complex" title="Oedipus complex">Oedipus complex</a></li>
<li><a href="Ontic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontic">Ontic</a></li>
<li><a href="Ontopoetics" title="Ontopoetics">Ontopoetics</a></li>
<li><a href="Other_(philosophy)" title="Other (philosophy)">Other</a></li>
<li><a href="Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li>
<li><a href="Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></li>
<li><a href="Self-deception" title="Self-deception">Self-deception</a></li>
<li><a href="Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="Trace_(deconstruction)" title="Trace (deconstruction)">Trace</a></li>
<li><a href="Transvaluation_of_values" title="Transvaluation of values">Transvaluation of values</a></li>
<li><a href="Wertkritik" class="mw-redirect" title="Wertkritik">Wertkritik</a></li>
<li><a href="Will_to_power" title="Will to power">Will to power</a></li>
<li><a href="Hermeneutics_of_suspicion" title="Hermeneutics of suspicion">Hermeneutics of suspicion</a></li>
<li><a href="Discourse" title="Discourse">Discourse</a></li>
<li><a href="Linguistic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic theory">Linguistic theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li>
<li><a href="Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li>
<li><a href="Film_theory" title="Film theory">Film theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">Linguistic turn</a></li>
<li><a href="Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">Postcolonialism</a></li>
<li><a href="Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li>Category</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy269" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philosophy269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Branches269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>
<li><a href="Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li>
<li><a href="Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li>
<li><a href="Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li>
<li><a href="Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li>
<li><a href="Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li>
<li><a href="Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li>
<li><a href="Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>
<li><a href="Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li>
<li><a href="Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li>
<li><a href="Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a>
<ul><li><a href="Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a>
<ul><li><a href="Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>
<li><a href="Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>
<li><a href="Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li>
<li><a href="Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li>
<li><a href="Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li>
<li><a href="Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>
<li><a href="Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>
<li><a href="Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>
<li><a href="Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li>
<li><a href="Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>
<li><a href="Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li>
<li><a href="Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>
<li><a href="Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li>
<li><a href="Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a>
<ul><li><a href="Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li>
<li><a href="Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li>
<li><a href="Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li>
<li><a href="Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li>
<li><a href="School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li>
<li><a href="Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li>
<li><a href="School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li>
<li><a href="Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a>
<ul><li><a href="Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li>
<li><a href="Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li>
<li><a href="Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li>
<li><a href="Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li>
<li><a href="Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li>
<li><a href="Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li>
<li><a href="Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li>
<li><a href="Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li>
<li><a href="Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li>
<li><a href="Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li>
<li><a href="Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a>
<ul><li><a href="Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li>
<li><a href="Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>
<li><a href="Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li>
<li><a href="Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li>
<li><a href="School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li>
<li><a href="Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li>
<li><a href="Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li>
<li><a href="Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li>
<li><a href="Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li>
<li><a href="Dispositio" title="Dispositio">Dispositio</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a>
<ul><li><a href="Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li>
<li><a href="Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li>
<li><a href="Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li>
<li><a href="Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li>
<li><a href="M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li>
<li><a href="%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li>
<li><a href="Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li>
<li><a href="Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a>
<ul><li><a href="Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li>
<li><a href="Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a>
<ul><li><a href="Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li>
<li><a href="Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li>
<li><a href="Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li>
<li><a href="Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li>
<li><a href="Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li>
<li><a href="Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li>
<li><a href="%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li>
<li><a href="Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li>
<li><a href="Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li>
<li><a href="Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li>
<li><a href="Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li>
<li><a href="Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li>
<li><a href="Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li>
<li><a href="Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li>
<li><a href="Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li>
<li><a href="Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li>
<li><a href="Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li>
<li><a href="Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li>
<li><a href="Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li>
<li><a href="Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li>
<li><a href="Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li>
<li><a href="Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a>
<ul><li><a href="Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li>
<li><a href="Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li>
<li><a href="Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li>
<li><a href="Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li>
<li><a href="Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li>
<li><a href="Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li>
<li><a href="Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li>
<li><a href="Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li>
<li><a href="Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li>
<li><a href="Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>
<li><a href="Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li>
<li><a href="Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>
<li><a href="Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>
<li><a href="Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>
<li><a href="Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>
<li><a href="Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a>
<ul><li><a href="Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a>
<ul><li><a href="Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li>
<li><a href="British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li>
<li><a href="German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li>
<li><a href="Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li>
<li><a href="Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li>
<li><a href="Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li>
<li><a href="Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>
<li><a href="Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>
<li><a href="Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>
<li><a href="Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li>
<li><a href="Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>
<li><a href="New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li>
<li><a href="Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li>
<li><a href="Philosophical_pessimism" title="Philosophical pessimism">Pessimism</a></li>
<li><a href="Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>
<li><a href="Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>
<li><a href="Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>
<li><a href="Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>
<li><a href="Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>
<li><a href="Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li>
<li><a href="Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a>
<ul><li><a href="Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li>
<li><a href="Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li>
<li><a href="Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li>
<li><a href="Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li>
<li><a href="Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li>
<li><a href="Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li>
<li><a href="Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li>
<li><a href="Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li>
<li><a href="Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>
<li><a href="Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>
<li><a href="Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li>
<li><a href="Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li>
<li><a href="John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li>
<li><a href="Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li>
<li><a href="Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li>
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<li><a href="Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>
<li><a href="Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li>
<li><a href="Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>
<li><a href="Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>
<li><a href="Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li>
<li><a href="Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li>
<li><a href="Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li>
<li><a href="Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li>
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<li><a href="Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li>
<li><a href="Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li>
<li><a href="Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li>
<li><a href="Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li>
<li><a href="Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li>
<li><a href="Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li>
<li><a href="Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li>
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<ul><li><a href="Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li>
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<ul><li><a href="American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li>
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<ul><li><a href="Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li>
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<ul><li><a href="Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li>
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<li><a href="Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a>
<ul><li><a href="Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li>
<li><a href="Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li>
<li><a href="Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>
<li><a href="Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a>
<ul><li><a href="European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a>
<ul><li><a href="Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>
<ul><li><a href="Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a>
<ul><li><a href="Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a>
<ul><li><a href="Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a>
<ul><li><a href="Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a>
<ul><li><a href="Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li>
<li><a href="Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li>
<li><a href="Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li>
<li><a href="Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a>
<ul><li><a href="Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li>
<li><a href="Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li>
<li><a href="Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li>
<li><a href="Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li>
<li><a href="Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li>
<li><a href="Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li>
<li><a href="Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li>
<li><a href="Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li>
<li><a href="Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a>
<ul><li><a href="Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a>
<ul><li><a href="Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li>
<li><a href="Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li>
<li><a href="Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li>
<li><a href="Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li>
<li><a href="Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li>
<li><a href="Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li>
<li><a href="International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary<br>integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li>
<li><a href="Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li>
<li><a href="Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li>
<li><a href="ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li>
<li><a href="ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li>
<li><a href="Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li>
<li><a href="AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li>
<li><a href="AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li>
<li><a href="Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li>
<li><a href="Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li>
<li><a href="British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li>
<li><a href="Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li>
<li><a href="Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li>
<li><a href="CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li>
<li><a href="Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li>
<li><a href="Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li>
<li><a href="Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li>
<li><a href="Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li>
<li><a href="Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li>
<li><a href="Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li>
<li><a href="European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li>
<li><a href="European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li>
<li><a href="European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li>
<li><a href="European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li>
<li><a href="European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li>
<li><a href="European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li>
<li><a href="Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li>
<li><a href="EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement" title="EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement">EU–UK TCA</a></li>
<li><a href="Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a></li>
<li><a href="G7" title="G7">G7</a></li>
<li><a href="Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li>
<li><a href="Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li>
<li><a href="NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li>
<li><a href="Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li>
<li><a href="Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">OAS</a></li>
<li><a href="OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a></li>
<li><a href="Open_Balkan" title="Open Balkan">Open Balkan</a></li>
<li><a href="Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">OSCE</a></li>
<li><a href="Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum</a></li>
<li><a href="Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America">PROSUR/PROSUL</a></li>
<li><a href="Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Treaty</a></li>
<li><a href="Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen</a></li>
<li><a href="Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a></li>
<li><a href="Three_Seas_Initiative" title="Three Seas Initiative">Three Seas Initiative</a></li>
<li><a href="UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a></li>
<li><a href="United_States%E2%80%93Mexico%E2%80%93Canada_Agreement" title="United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement">USMCA</a></li>
<li><a href="Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li>
<li><a href="West_Nordic_Council" title="West Nordic Council">West Nordic Council</a></li>
<li><a href="Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li>
<li><a href="Western_European_and_Others_Group" title="Western European and Others Group">Western European and Others Group</a></li>
<li><a href="Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sub-fields_of_and_approaches_to_human_geography189" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Sub-fields_of_and_approaches_to_human_geography189" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Sub-fields of and approaches to <a href="Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sub-fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li>
<li><a href="Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive</a></li>
<li><a href="Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li>
<li><a href="Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural</a>
<ul><li><a href="Animal_geographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal geographies">Animal</a></li>
<li><a href="Children's_geographies" title="Children's geographies">Children's</a></li>
<li><a href="Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic</a>
<ul><li><a href="Agricultural_geography" title="Agricultural geography">Agricultural</a></li>
<li><a href="Cyber_geography" title="Cyber geography">Cyber</a></li>
<li><a href="Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development</a></li>
<li><a href="Geography_of_finance" title="Geography of finance">Financial</a></li>
<li><a href="Historical_economic_geography" title="Historical economic geography">Histo-economic</a></li>
<li><a href="Labor_geography" title="Labor geography">Labor</a></li>
<li><a href="Geomarketing" title="Geomarketing">Marketing</a></li>
<li><a href="Retail_geography" title="Retail geography">Retail</a></li>
<li><a href="Theoretical_economic_geography" title="Theoretical economic geography">Theoretical economic</a></li>
<li><a href="Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Language_geography" title="Language geography">Language</a>
<ul><li><a href="Geolinguistics" title="Geolinguistics">Linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="Vernacular_geography" title="Vernacular geography">Vernacular</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Moral_geography" title="Moral geography">Moral</a></li>
<li><a href="Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychological</a>
<ul><li><a href="Emotional_geography" title="Emotional geography">Emotional</a></li>
<li><a href="Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neo</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Sexuality_and_space" title="Sexuality and space">Sexuality</a></li>
<li><a href="Religion_and_geography" title="Religion and geography">Religion</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Geography_of_food" title="Geography of food">Food</a></li>
<li><a href="Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health</a></li>
<li><a href="Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical</a>
<ul><li><a href="Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeo</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Imagined_geographies" title="Imagined geographies">Imagined</a></li>
<li><a href="Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet</a></li>
<li><a href="Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political</a>
<ul><li><a href="Critical_geopolitics" title="Critical geopolitics">Critical geopolitics</a></li>
<li><a href="Electoral_geography" title="Electoral geography">Electoral</a></li>
<li><a href="Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a>
<ul><li><a href="Strategic_geography" title="Strategic geography">Strategic</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Military_geography" title="Military geography">Military</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population</a>
<ul><li><a href="Settlement_geography" title="Settlement geography">Settlement</a>
<ul><li><a href="Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a></li>
<li><a href="Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban</a>
<ul><li><a href="Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li>
<li><a href="Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social</a></li>
<li><a href="Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism</a></li>
<li><a href="Tropical_geography" title="Tropical geography">Tropical</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li>
<li><a href="Culture_theory" title="Culture theory">Culture theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Feminist_geography" title="Feminist geography">Feminist</a></li>
<li><a href="Marxist_geography" title="Marxist geography">Marxist</a></li>
<li><a href="Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a>
<ul><li><a href="Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li>
<li><a href="Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Non-representational_theory" title="Non-representational theory">Non-representational theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li>
<li><a href="Time_geography" title="Time geography">Time</a></li>
<li><a href="Universalism_in_geography" title="Universalism in geography">Universalism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li></ul>
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